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Early European accounts provide insights into Aboriginal Australian social organization, revealing complex systems of land tenure, leadership, and group structure. A crucial starting point is the definition of “tribe.” As Lorimer Fison and A.W. Howitt cautioned, this term is deeply misleading. It could describe an entire distinct community, like the Larakia, or a smaller division […]
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- National Museum of Australia. “Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia.” Distinguishes returning and non-returning forms and varied uses.
- Threlkeld, L.E. “Warlike Implements, the Tur-rur-ma, or Boomerang.” Christian Herald, 31 March 1855, p. 54; reproduced in Niel Gunson (ed.), Australian Reminiscences and Papers of L.E. Threlkeld.
- Edward John Eyre. Journals of Expeditions of Discovery (1845), Manners and Customs, ch. IV; records differences in angle and flight.
- James Dawson. Australian Aborigines (1881), p. 88; lighter returning form versus heavier war boomerang.
- R. Brough Smyth. The Aborigines of Victoria, Vol. I (1878), comparative descriptions of forms and uses
- Smyth, R. Brough. The Aborigines of Victoria, Vol. I. 1878, Introduction pp. xviii-xix; statement that the boomerang was "not known in all parts of Australia," with Cape York and Tasmania examples.
- Queensland Colonial Secretary correspondence, Somerset report by Frank Jardine, 1 March 1865, summary p. 54; records boomerang and nulla nulla as unknown locally.
- MacGillivray, John. Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, Vol. I, 1852, north-east coast account; notes a boomerang farther south and its absence farther north.
- National Museum of Australia. "Boomerang." Modern institutional summary of the object's later national symbolism and varied uses.
- Wilson, Thomas Braidwood. Narrative of a Voyage Round the World. London: Sherwood, Gilbert & Piper, 1835, especially pp. 86–88 and vocabulary pp. 315–321.
- Leichhardt, Ludwig. Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia, from Moreton Bay to Port Essington, 1844–1845. London: T. & W. Boone, 1847, p. 534 (entry for 16 December 1845).
- The Australian Aboriginal by Herbert Basedow (p. 375, paras. 1–2)
- Sir Baldwin Spencer’s Recordings of Australian Aboriginal Singing by Alice M. Moyle (p. 14, para. 5; p. 15, para. 4)
- Thomas Braidwood Wilson, Narrative of a Voyage Round the World (p. 87; illustration p. 88)
- Kamilaroi and Kurnai by Lorimer Fison and A.W. Howitt
- The Aborigines of Australia by Richard Sadleir, R.N., J.P.
- The Aborigines of Australia by Roderick J. Flanagan
- The Life and Adventures of William Buckley by John Morgan
- The Aborigines in Australia by Gideon Lang
- The Narrinyeri: An account of the Tribes of South Australian Aborigines by Rev. George Taplin
- Source: Peter Read's Paper
- Source: Jay Arthur changed the name to "Stolen"
- The Life and Adventures of William Buckley by John Morgan (p. 72, para. 1)
- The Aborigines in Australia by Gideon Lang (p. 5, para. 1)
- The Life and Adventures of William Buckley by John Morgan (p. 72, para. 1)
- The Aborigines of Australia by Richard Sadleir, R.N., J.P. (p. 60, para. 3)
- The Aborigines of Australia by Roderick J. Flanagan (p. 14)
- link 1
- link 2
- Source: Torres Strait Islander flag details
- Source: A timeline for the Aboriginal Flag
- Source: A link to the "La noche que oculta", 1967
- Source: Alternate link to the full sized image
- Wallabies War-Cry (Haka) History by Sean Fagan — Saints and Heathens (sections on Newtown and Moran’s 1908 letter)
- Otago Witness, “Football” (9 Dec. 1908; printed Wallabies chant and contemporary Illawarra-origin claim)
- “1908 Wallaby War Cry” — State Library of NSW / John Corbett Davis Collection metadata
- Wallabies War-Cry (Haka) History by Sean Fagan — Saints and Heathens (haka comparison, Newtown origin and “box-office value” discussion)
- Herbert Michael Moran — Classic Wallabies (Moran’s opposition to the war-cry)
- The First Wallabies — Rugby Australia archive exhibition (1908 touring context and war-cry material)
- Rufus River Magistrates’ Inquiry — evidence of Matthew Moorhouse (1841, answer beginning “it might be their war-cry…”)
- The Australian, “Moreton Bay (From a Correspondent)” (22 Dec. 1838; passage describing Molrooben “singing the war-song of his tribe”)
- Two Expeditions into the Interior of Southern Australia by Charles Sturt (1829 observation; passage beginning “marched to and fro, to a war song…”)
- Among Cannibals by Carl Lumholtz (1889; Herbert River war-cry and war-song passages)
- Wallabies War-Cry (Haka) History by Sean Fagan — Saints and Heathens (later-use chronology: 1912, 1913, 1923, 1924, 1925 and 1927)
- The Wallaby Jersey — Rugby Australia (1920–1928 section; NSW representative matches later given retrospective Wallaby status)
- “1908 Wallaby War Cry” — State Library of NSW / John Corbett Davis Collection metadata
- Wallabies War-Cry (Haka) History by Sean Fagan — Saints and Heathens (Moran quotations, Portus reaction and contemporary British press commentary)
- Herbert Michael “Paddy” Moran — Classic Wallabies (biography summarising Moran’s Viewless Winds account)
- Wallabies — Rugby Football History (1908 tour section describing the team as embarrassed by the war cry)
- Collet Barker journal, c. 1829 (quoted in Mulvaney & Green 1992, p. 113; para. beginning “Mago had brought…”)
- Thomas Braidwood Wilson, Narrative of a Voyage Round the World (p. 87; illustration p. 88)
- The Australian didjeridu: A late musical intrusion by Alice M. Moyle (World Archaeology 12(3), pp. 321–331)
- Sir Baldwin Spencer’s Recordings of Australian Aboriginal Singing by Alice M. Moyle (p. 16, para. 6)
- AIATSIS, Didjeridu (history / origin section)
- Thomas Braidwood Wilson, Narrative of a Voyage Round the World (p. 87, para. beginning “In the evening…”; illustration p. 88)
- Ludwig Leichhardt, Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia (16 Dec. 1845, p. 534, para. beginning “They tried to cheer us up…”)
- J. Lort Stokes, Discoveries in Australia, Vol. I (p. 394, para. beginning “I here saw the only musical instrument…”)
- Sir Baldwin Spencer’s Recordings of Australian Aboriginal Singing by Alice M. Moyle (p. 16, para. 6)
- The Australian didjeridu: A late musical intrusion by Alice M. Moyle (World Archaeology 12(3), pp. 321–331)
- Songs from North Queensland by Alice M. Moyle (p. 4, para. beginning “Wooden trumpet (didjeridu) blowing is a fairly recent musical innovation…”)
- Thomas Braidwood Wilson, Narrative of a Voyage Round the World (Appendix, p. 319, entry “Ebero — Their musical instrument”)
- Ludwig Leichhardt, Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia (16 Dec. 1845, p. 534; “Eboro”)
- J. Lort Stokes, Discoveries in Australia, Vol. I (p. 394; “ebroo”)
- Collet Barker journal, c. 1829 (quoted in Mulvaney & Green 1992, p. 113; phrase “didoggerry whoan”)
- The Australian didjeridu: A late musical intrusion by Alice M. Moyle (p. 321 / abstract: “recent, non-Aboriginal name”)
- Hamilton Spectator, “Retribution” (24 Oct. 1908, p. 8; “did-gery-do”)
- Hamilton Spectator, “Retribution” (24 Oct. 1908, p. 8; “did-gery-do”)
- The Australian Aboriginal by Herbert Basedow (p. 375, para. 1; “didjeridoo” and “tidjarudu”)
- The Australian didjeridu: A late musical intrusion by Alice M. Moyle (p. 321 / abstract: recent, non-Aboriginal name)
- The Native Tribes of Central Australia by Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen (p. 606, para. 5; ilpirra / ulpirra “rudimentary trumpet”)
- Sir Baldwin Spencer’s Recordings of Australian Aboriginal Singing by Alice M. Moyle (pp. 14–16; conch, yiki-yiki and distribution discussion)
- Collet Barker journal, c. 1829 (quoted in Mulvaney & Green 1992, p. 113; “a large hollow cane about 3 feet long”)
- Ludwig Leichhardt, Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia (16 Dec. 1845, p. 534; “a long tube of bamboo”)
- J. Lort Stokes, Discoveries in Australia, Vol. I (p. 394; bamboo instrument two to three feet long)
- The Australian Aboriginal by Herbert Basedow (p. 375, paras. 1–2; bamboo trumpet / woolly-butt eucalyptus)
- Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia by Baldwin Spencer (pp. 137–141; Jiboulu as bamboo or hollow branch trumpet)
- Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia by Baldwin Spencer (p. 391, para. 1; naturally hollow branches)
- The Australian Aboriginal by Herbert Basedow (pp. 375–376; hollow limbs, bamboo, mouthpiece treatment)
- Ludwig Leichhardt, Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia (16 Dec. 1845, p. 534; Eboro accompanying song)
- Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia by Baldwin Spencer (p. 125, bamboo trumpets in initiation; pp. 137–141, Jiboulu / Purakakka)
- The Australian Aboriginal by Herbert Basedow (pp. 371–376, Music and Dance)
- Sir Baldwin Spencer’s Recordings of Australian Aboriginal Singing by Alice M. Moyle (pp. 13–16)
- Collet Barker journal, c. 1829 (quoted in Mulvaney & Green 1992, p. 113; about three feet long)
- J. Lort Stokes, Discoveries in Australia, Vol. I (p. 394; bamboo instrument two to three feet long)
- The Australian Aboriginal by Herbert Basedow (pp. 375–376; construction and form)
- Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia by Baldwin Spencer (p. 391, para. 1; naturally hollow branches; construction context)
- Thomas Braidwood Wilson, Narrative of a Voyage Round the World (Appendix, p. 319, “Ebero”)
- Ludwig Leichhardt, Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia (16 Dec. 1845, p. 534, “Eboro”)
- J. Lort Stokes, Discoveries in Australia, Vol. I (p. 394, “ebroo”)
- Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia by Baldwin Spencer (p. 137, Jiboulu; p. 141, Purakakka)
- Sir Baldwin Spencer’s Recordings of Australian Aboriginal Singing by Alice M. Moyle (pp. 14–15; discussion of regional trumpet names)
- Sir Baldwin Spencer’s Recordings of Australian Aboriginal Singing by Alice M. Moyle (pp. 13–16)
- The Australian Aboriginal by Herbert Basedow (pp. 373–376; musical instruments including animal-skin drums and bamboo trumpets)
- The Australian didjeridu: A late musical intrusion by Alice M. Moyle (pp. 321–331)
- Songs from North Queensland by Alice M. Moyle (p. 4; Mornington Island adoption within the previous 20–30 years)
- AIATSIS, Musical Connections: Alice Moyle
- Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia — National Museum of Australia (section “Boomerang uses”)
- Boomerang — National Museum of Australia (section “Hunting tool with many uses”)
- The search for the hunting boomerang by Dr Stan Florek (discussion of different forms and functions)
- Life and Adventures of William Buckley by John Morgan (Chapter II, sentence beginning “The boomerang is another weapon of war…”)
- L.E. Threlkeld, An Australian Grammar (1834), Introductory Remarks p. xi / NLA scan p. 13: “Boomiring” among “barbarisms” and tur-ra-ma as local term
- L.E. Threlkeld, Annual Report of the Mission to Aborigines, Lake Macquarie (1839), comparative vocabulary including pa-run and koilee
- L.E. Threlkeld, “Warlike Implements, the Tur-rur-ma, or Boomerang”, Christian Herald, 31 March 1855, p. 68
- Edward John Eyre, Journals of Expeditions of Discovery (1845), wangn/wangno and western kiley terminology
- David Nash, “An unsaleable bent stick, boomerangs, and yardsticks” (2008), early word-history analysis
- Upper Palaeolithic boomerang made of a mammoth tusk in south Poland by Valde-Nowak, Nadachowski & Wolsan (Nature 329, pp. 436–438)
- Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia — National Museum of Australia (section “Boomerangs and throwing sticks”)
- Talamo et al., PLOS ONE (2025), "Boomerang and bones: Refining the chronology of the Early Upper Paleolithic at Obłazowa Cave, Poland"
- Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian, Hopi “Throwing stick/Boomerang”
- The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Egyptian “Boomerang”, ca. 1981-1550 BC
- Diamond et al., Scientific Reports (2024), Aboriginal Australian weapons and human efficiency
- Upper Palaeolithic boomerang made of a mammoth tusk in south Poland by Valde-Nowak, Nadachowski & Wolsan (Nature 329, pp. 436–438)
- Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia — National Museum of Australia (section “Boomerangs and throwing sticks”, Wyrie Swamp and Kimberley rock-art discussion)
- Finch et al., “12,000-Year-old Aboriginal rock art from the Kimberley region, Western Australia”, Science Advances 6(6) (2020)
- Finch et al. (2021), Extended Data Fig. 5 — context for boomerang stencil motif DR013-09; panel (a) is the original photograph
- Damien Finch PhD thesis, Fig. 4-S2 — same DR013-09 figure, with original photograph and DStretch comparison panels
- Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia — National Museum of Australia (section “Boomerang uses”, marsupial hunting and duck-hunting explanation)
- Boomerang — National Museum of Australia (section “Hunting tool with many uses”)
- The search for the hunting boomerang by Dr Stan Florek (discussion of large hunting forms versus returning toy-boomerang branch)
- The Aborigines of Victoria, Vol. I by R. Brough Smyth (1878, Introduction: paras. beginning “The play boomerang (Wonguim); the war boomerang (Barngeet)…”; and “The Kylie or boomerang is a thin and paper-like missile…”)
- The search for the hunting boomerang by Dr Stan Florek (five major types; central Australian form; distribution discussion)
- North Queensland Ethnography. Bulletin No. 13. Fighting Weapons by Walter E. Roth (boomerang sections for Lower Tully River, Mackay District, Rockhampton District, Brisbane, and North-West / Lower Gulf Districts)
- Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia — National Museum of Australia (section “Boomerang trade” describing hooked “number 7” and heavy carved forms)
- Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake by John MacGillivray (1852, Vol. II, p. 84, footnote: Australian throwing-sticks “themselves vary in different localities”; useful corroborating evidence for regional weapon-form variation)
- The Aborigines of Victoria, Vol. I by R. Brough Smyth (1878, Introduction, paras. beginning “The play boomerang (Wonguim); the war boomerang (Barngeet)…” and “Because a war boomerang will not return…”)
- Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia — National Museum of Australia (section “Boomerangs across Australia”, statement that the vast majority are non-returning)
- The search for the hunting boomerang by Dr Stan Florek (discussion of common type, returning toy-boomerang branch, and non-returning hunting forms)
- L.E. Threlkeld, “Warlike Implements, the Tur-rur-ma, or Boomerang”, Christian Herald, 31 March 1855, p. 68
- James Dawson, Australian Aborigines (1881), p. 88, war boomerang versus toy boomerang
- Edward John Eyre, Journals of Expeditions of Discovery (1845), Manners and Customs, ch. IV
- Narrative of the Overland Expedition of the Messrs. Jardine by F. & A. Jardine (Cape York report, para. 14, sentence beginning “I have seen no other weapons among them…”; para. 17 defines the four tribes covered)
- The Aborigines of Victoria, Vol. I by R. Brough Smyth (1878, Introduction, paras. beginning “The boomerang is not known in all parts of Australia…” through “The wonguim has not been found in New Guinea…”)
- The Aborigines of Tasmania by H. Ling Roth (1899, contents / weapons discussion noting no boomerang or throwing-stick)
- Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia — National Museum of Australia (section “Boomerangs across Australia”; modern synthesis)
- Edward John Eyre, Journals of Expeditions of Discovery (1845), Manners and Customs, ch. IV, wangn/wangno and kiley discussion
- James Dawson, Australian Aborigines (1881), p. 88, war boomerang versus toy boomerang
- John MacGillivray, Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, vol. 1 (1852), north-east coast/Cape York account
- Alfred J. Taylor, “The use of the womerah, or ‘throw stick’ by the aborigines of Tasmania” (1892), p.84, Papers & Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania
- Rock Art Australia, “Naturalistic” — Kimberley boomerang stencils and earlier use evidence
- The Aborigines of Australia by Richard Sadleir, R.N., J.P. (p. 60, para. 3)
- Among Cannibals: An Account of Four Years’ Travels in Australia and of Camp Life with the Aborigines of Queensland by Carl Lumholtz, M.A. (p. 49, para. 2)
- Letters to Guy by Lady Barker (p. 177, para. 1)
- Colonial Facts and Fictions by Mark Kershaw (pp. 64-70)
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